Brown, S.L. & Eisenhardt K.M. (1995). Product Development: Past Research, Present Findings, and Future Directions. Academy of Management Review, 20(2), 343-378.

Format: Peer-reviewed article

Type: Research — Non-experimental

Experience level of reader: Fundamental

Annotation: The article develops a product development model based on a review of over two decades of literature on the topic, highlighting product effectiveness as distinct from process efficiency as well as identifying agents that affect these outcomes through their behavior. The authors organize the literature into three major research streams, extract product success factors as seen by each stream and integrate these into their proposed model. The article also identifies missing links in the model as basis for recommended future research.

Setting(s) to which the reported activities/findings are relevant: Large business, Small business (less than 500 employees)

Knowledge user(s) to whom the piece of literature may be relevant: Manufacturers, Policy Makers

Knowledge user level addressed by the literature: Organization

This article uses the Commercial Devices and Services version of the NtK Model

• Cross-functional team membership — Internal team members communicated more frequently with external personnel when they shared similar functional backgrounds. The more functions represented on the team, the greater the external communication by the team as a whole, and better management-rated performance.
  Literature Review — 1969 — 1994.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Gate 3

• Teams may meet with customers directly in focus group settings, to achieve a shared team understanding of who the customer is and what the customer wants.
  Literature Review — 1969 — 1994.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 6.1, Step 5.3

• Gatekeepers — Bring information into the organization and disperse it among fellow cross-functional team members, as well as serve as point of communication contact with external partners and key customers.
  Review of Literature — 1969 — 1994.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 4.6

• Disciplined problem-solving model of product development
  Imai et al, 1985; Takeuchi & Nonaka, 1986; Clark, Chew & Fujimoto, 1987; Clark & Fujimoto, 1991; Hayes et al, 1988; Womack et al, 1990; Iansiti, 1992, 1993; Eisenhardt & Tabrizi, (in press at the time)

• Product development success model
  Literature reported by the authors as basis for three specific models they constructed, and which they then used to build this integrated model.

• Rational Plan model of product development
  Myers and Marquis, 1969; Rothwell, 1972; Rothwell et al, 1974; Cooper & Kleinschidt, 1987; Maidique & Zirger, 1984, 1985; Zirger & Maidique, 1990.

• Communication web model of product development
  Allen, 1971, 1977; Katz & Tushman, 1981; Katz, 1982; Katz & Allen, 1985; Keller, 1988; Ancona & Caldwell, 1991, 1992a, 1992b. Dougherty, 1990, 1992; Dougherty & Corse (in press at the time)

• Product development success model
  Literature reported by the authors as basis for three specific models they constructed, and which they then used to build this integrated model.

• Compose an efficient project team; make sure that it is cross functional, includes gatekeepers, and its members have moderate tenure, i.e., have neither a too short nor too long a history together. This is to ensure increased information sharing and flow both internally and externally.
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 1] between this method and product development speed in the integrated model. Actual results not reported. Clark & Fujimoto, 1991; Dougherty, 1992; Zirger & Maidique, 1990; Allen, 1971, 1977.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 3.1, Step 4.1

• Accommodate good senior management support; encourage use of subtle control (for both speed and product concept effectiveness, leading to financial success)
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 6] in the integrated model, between this method and product effectiveness and thereby to financial success. Actual results not reported.

• Facilitate group process; Build team cohesion by encouraging frequency of Internal and external communication by team members in order to increase amount of information and ensure fast product development
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 2] in the integrated model, between this method and product development speed and subsequently, financial success. Actual results not reported.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 3.1, Step 4.1

• Product performance is driven by the amount, variety and problem-solving organization of information and by the resources available to the project team
  Literature review. Summary statement drawn from body of literature reviewed by the authors.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 4.7, Step 2.2

• Product effectiveness is driven by internal input from Team Leaders and Senior Management, and by external input from Customers, which together forms a clear vision for the intended product.
  Summary statement drawn from body of literature reviewed by the authors.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Step 2.2, Step 1.1

• Accommodate good senior management support; encourage use of subtle control (for both speed and product concept effectiveness, leading to financial success)
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 6] in the integrated model, between this method and product effectiveness and thereby to financial success. Actual results not reported.

• Compose an efficient project team; make sure that it is cross functional, includes gatekeepers, and its members have moderate tenure, i.e., have neither a too short nor too long a history together. This is to ensure increased information sharing and flow both internally and externally.
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 1] between this method and product development speed in the integrated model. Actual results not reported. Clark & Fujimoto, 1991; Dougherty, 1992; Zirger & Maidique, 1990; Allen, 1971, 1977.

• Make sure that the team is led by persons with significant decision making responsibility (power), cognitive ability to creatively handle multiple factors and adequate management skill in order to improve product concept effectiveness.
  Authors report significant and robust link [link 4+ link 3] in the integrated model, between this method and product effectiveness and thereby to financial success. Actual results not reported.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 1, Stage 3, Stage 4

Barrier: Having separate functional departments (“thought worlds”) (Dougherty, 1992)
Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 4

Carrier: Have cross functional personnel and facilitate an interactive and iterative process (Dougherty, 1990, 1992.)
Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 4

• Utilize different problem solving strategies for established verses rapidly changing products. For established — use extensive planning and overlapped development. For rapidly changing — use frequent iterations, extensive testing and short milestones (Hayes et al, 1988; Womack et al, 1990)

• Provide for Frequent communication — internally to increase amount of information; externally to increase new information coming in.
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 4

• Extensively engage suppliers early on in the process (Gupta & Wilemon, 1990; Clark & Fugimoto, 1991; Imai et al, 1985)
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 4

• Consider Pre-development planning, product advantage, clear product concept (Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1987, 1993)
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 1, Stage 2

• Consider market conditions — entry into large and growing markets; and markets with competition (Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1987, 1993.)
  Occurrence of finding within the model: Stage 9

• Project leaders should maintain the project vision, lobby for resources, protect the group from outside interference, and manage the impressions of outsiders (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992b)